Table 1 Different approaches to process design in knowledge production
| Normal science | Post-normal science | Conflict management | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Question |
Well-defined problem Closed-framed question |
Wicked problem Stakeholder-negotiated question(s) |
Potentially irreconcilable problem definitions Co-existing diverging questions |
| Evidence |
Published scientific and grey literature Quantitative and qualitative scientific analysis |
Filling primary data gaps highlighted by stakeholders Exploring interpretations through social learning |
Evidence generation integrated in process design, e.g. via joint fact-finding Facilitated exploration of the role of different types of knowledge |
| Review team |
Experts Scientific independence |
Involving stakeholders in framing the process, e.g. identifying research questions Consensus seeking |
Stakeholders are the experts and directly involved in answering the questions Building mutual understanding of disagreements |
| Stakeholder group |
Consultation role only Identified based on pre-defined problem |
Decision-making authority Involvement prior to problem definition |
Stakeholders may not agree to form a group—distinct meetings instead Facilitation aiming at equality in practice among different stakeholders |